After 1970, however, many American institutions--corporations, unions, universities, others--were required to set aside what in effect were quotas, a process that engaged the federal government as never before in a wide variety of personnel decisions taken in the private sector. This dramatic and rapid transformation of congressional intent took place as a result of executive decisions--especially Nixon's--and court interpretations. Affirmative action of this sort never had the support of democratically elected representatives.41