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28e01af In my own field, x-ray crystallography, we used to work out the structure of minerals by various dodges which we never bothered to write down, we just used them. Then came along to the laboratory, saw what we were doing and wrote out what we now call 's Rules. We had all been using 's Rules for about three or four years before told us what the rules were. science laboratory pauling-s-rules x-ray x-ray-crystallography pauling linus-pauling J.D. Bernal
2ace62c " freedom science pauling william-astbury william-thomas-astbury x-ray-crystallographer linus-pauling chemistry physics J.D. Bernal
bd0fe4a So while Pauling struggled with his model, Watson and Crick turned theirs inside out, so the negative phosphorus ions wouldn't touch. This gave them a sort of twisted ladder--the famed double helix. double-helix linus-pauling molecular-structure nucleic-acids francis-crick james-watson Sam Kean