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d3bd089
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As Sunil Khilnani demonstrates in The Idea of India, the notion of India as a nation-state was something that was invented under British rule.4 Prior to Britain's arrival, the subcontinent was a hodgepodge of princely states, languages, ethnic groups, and religions, with the Mogul Empire's writ limited only to parts of northern India. Under the British, India got a sense of itself as a single, unified political space (even if that space was..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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69ae11d
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Much of what passes for corruption is not simply a matter of greed but rather the by-product of legislators or public officials who feel more obligated to family, tribe, region, or ethnic group than to the national community and therefore divert money in that direction.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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d6709cd
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Human beings cooperate in order to compete, and compete to cooperate.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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77c2fe2
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A lot of historical writing has been characterized as ODTAA--"one damn thing after another"--without an effort to extract general rules or causal theories that can be applied in other circumstances."
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Francis Fukuyama |
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0572855
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THE RISE OF POLITICAL ACCOUNTABILITY What political accountability is; how the lateness of European state building was the source of subsequent liberty; what is wrong with "Whig history" and how political development cannot be understood except by comparing countries; five different European outcomes Accountable government means that the rulers believe that they are responsible to the people they govern and put the people's interests above ..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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02b8b41
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The Thai and Chinese cases, as well as the nineteenth-century European ones, suggest that the size of the middle class relative to the rest of the society is one important variable in determining how it will behave politically.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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6400460
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The idea that democracy was the most, or indeed the only, legitimate form of government spread to every corner of the world. Democratic constitutions were rewritten, or written for the first time, in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the former Communist world. But stable liberal democracy was consolidated only in a subset of those countries undergoing democratic transitions, because the material balance of power in each society did not forc..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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4325063
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Marx's original definition of "bourgeoisie" referred to ownership of the means of production. One of the characteristics of the modern world is that this form of property has become vastly democratized through stock ownership and pension plans. Even if one does not possess large amounts of capital, working in a managerial capacity or profession often grants one a very different kind of social status and outlook from a wage earner or low-ski..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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363b814
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Political scientist Ronald Inglehart, who has overseen the massive World Values Survey that seeks to measure value change around the world, has argued that economic modernization and middle-class status produce what he calls "post-material" values in which democracy, equality, and identity issues become much more prominent than older issues of economic distribution."
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Francis Fukuyama |
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3d13c3e
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From the earlier discussion of Europe in the nineteenth century, however, it should be clear that the middle classes are not inevitably supporters of democracy. This tends to be particularly true when the middle classes still constitute a minority of the population.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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805c468
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A high degree of autonomy is what permits innovation, experimentation and risk taking in a bureaucracy. If the slightest mistake can end a career, then no one will ever take risks.
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risk
states
innovation
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Francis Fukuyama |
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a3ef581
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This is, in effect, the essence of politics: the ability of leaders to get their way through a combination of authority, legitimacy, intimidation, negotiation, charisma, ideas, and organization.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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9657ba6
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When testifying before a senate committee investigating his behavior, he said, "I got that patronage from the sheriff, the county clerk, the county treasurer, all the clerks of the different courts, the State administration ... It rarely happened ... that any appointments of any kind, big or little, were made in the section of the city in which I lived without my recommendation." Lorimer also owned a number of businesses that did contractin..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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00a1957
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These groups began agitating against corruption through reports and publicity about the backgrounds of candidates published in sympathetic newspapers; they sought to professionalize government by making it nonpartisan. Ironically, while this group spoke in the name of democracy, it actually represented the upper crust of Chicago society, an overwhelmingly Protestant group that looked down on the way that Lorimer was empowering the city's ne..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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5f5f5dc
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Lorimer for his part was contemptuous of the municipal reformers, calling them hypocrites who were using the reform cause as a means of increasing their own power and influence.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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3ec8ca8
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This professional class had an elevated view of its own status and importance, and tended to resent the fact that the bosses controlling municipal politics were cruder and less educated than they were. They were also taxpayers who didn't like the fact that their hard-earned dollars were going into the pockets of machine politicians.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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a7dc09a
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The organization of public-sector unions and the emergence of merit employees as a powerful interest group underscores one of the great inherent dilemmas of bureaucratic autonomy. On the one hand, the merit system was created to protect public employees from patronage and the excessive politicization of the bureaucracy. On the other hand, those same protective rules could be used to shield bureaucrats from accountability, making them hard t..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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21627ea
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Today, these same public-sector unions have themselves become part of an elite that uses the political system to protect its own self-interests. As we will see in Part IV, the quality of American public administration has declined markedly since the 1970s, in no small measure because of these unions' ability to limit merit as a basis for hiring and promotion. They are an integral part of the contemporary Democratic Party's political base, m..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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99b4139
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Whether he was conscious of it or not, Deng was restoring much of the institutional legacy of traditional Chinese government. Only this time, it was the Communist Party that played the role of the emperor with his eunuch cadres supervising a vast bureaucracy.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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0ea86ed
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Modern organizations have other characteristics as well. Samuel Huntington lists four criteria for measuring the degree of development of the institutions that make up the state: adaptability-rigidity, complexitysimplicity, autonomy-subordination, and coherence-disunity.16 That is, the more adaptable, complex, autonomous, and coherent an institution is, the more developed it will be. An adaptable organization can evaluate a changing externa..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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f22b49a
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Some 81 percent of all Prussian civil servants had been party members, half having joined before 1933.34 The American, British, and French occupation authorities sought to de-Nazify the German government by holding war crimes trials for senior leaders at Nuremburg, and then by purging individuals from the civil service. But as the new Federal Republic was formed in 1949 and pressure mounted to put in place a competent government that could ..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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eff5abf
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Maximize the material, short-run advantage of the nuclear family; assume that all others will do likewise.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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f56cb40
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Finally, the desire for recognition ensures that politics will never be reducible to simple economic self-interest. Human beings make constant judgments about the intrinsic value, worth, or dignity of other people or institutions, and they organize themselves into hierarchies based on those valuations. Political power ultimately rests upon recognition--the degree to which a leader or institution is regarded as legitimate and can command the..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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c831780
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Asagidaki dusunce deneyini uygulayarak sorunu ornekleyebiliriz. Yirmi yil sonra escinselligin genetik yonunu gercekten anlayip, anne babalarin escinsel olacak bir cocugu dunyaya getirme olasiligini cok kesin bir sekilde azaltmalarini saglayacak bir yontem gelistirdigimizi varsayalim. Bu durum genetik muhendisliginin gercekleseceginin varsaymayi gerektirmez; kullanilacak sey belki de yalnizca, rahimde gelismekte olan ceninin beyninde onu erk..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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d045a5f
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National identity is frequently formed in deliberate opposition to other groups and therefore serves to perpetuate conflict even as it strengthens internal social cohesion. National cohesion may express itself as external aggression. Human beings cooperate in order to compete, and compete to cooperate.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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e8f5dd2
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Many people today inside and outside the region are aware that many regimes, particularly in the Arab world, are cruel dictatorships unconstrained by any sense of higher law or justice.6 Westerners often think that the fusion of church and state is intrinsic to Islam while being foreign to Christian Europe, and that the kind of theocratic regime set up in Iran after the 1979 revolution somehow constitutes a reversion to a traditional form o..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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eec0d20
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Esit oranda taninma talebinin isaret ettigi nokta, bir insanin rastlantisal ve olumsal butun ozellikleri ayiklandiginda, belirli bir saygiyi hak eden insani bir oz niteligin- buna X faktoru diyelim- kalacagi dusuncesidir. Ten rengi, gorunus, toplumsal sinif ve refah duzeyi, cinsiyet, kulturel altyapi, hatta kisinin dogal yetenekleri bile dogum rastlantisalliklaridir ve ozsel olmayan nitelikler sinifina girerler.Bu ikincil ozelliklere dayana..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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ce5769f
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men had been everywhere and had seen everything, life's greatest experience had ended with most of life still to be lived, to find common purpose in the quiet days of peace would be hard
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Francis Fukuyama |
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6e4b5cd
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They squared this circle by creating a set of usufructuary (usage) rights that could be bought, sold, mortgaged, or transferred, in which the state nonetheless retained formal ownership.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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0fa8df5
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This seemingly minor point is in fact important in distinguishing Chinese and Western legal concepts: the latter see natural persons as bearers of rights and duties independently of any action of the state, whereas in China citizenship is something conferred on individuals by the state.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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768d58c
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These cases illustrate the way institutional arrangements can become self-reinforcing: once the principle of electoral politics is established under a limited franchise, incumbent parties can attempt to stay in power by seeking new voters, shifting to new issues, and reaching out across class lines.22
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Francis Fukuyama |
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3cb2234
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Societies are not trapped by their pasts and freely borrow ideas and institutions from each other.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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7398fee
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The United States tried to establish a modern, Weberian state during the Progressive Era and New Deal. It succeeded in many respects: the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control, the armed services, and the Federal Reserve are among the most technically competent, well-run, and autonomous government bodies anywhere in the world. But the overall quality of American public administration remains very problematic, precise..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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1864e3f
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He created, in the words of historian Hans Rosenberg, "a first-rate army which had to be supported by a country which was third-rate in terms of manpower, natural wealth, capital supply, and economic skills."
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Francis Fukuyama |
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c459fdd
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Sometimes things that don't happen are as important in explaining subsequent events as those that do, as Sherlock Holmes said of the dog that failed to bark. In Latin America, there also was a dog that didn't bark: the large-scale and continuous political violence that was so critical in shaping Western European states and national identity simply didn't convulse the New World. On the one hand, this was a good thing: Latin America has been ..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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09d879e
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When a rural Greek is hospitalized, relatives are in constant attendance to keep a check on the doctor and the treatment he prescribes.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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b94d63f
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While the economic inequalities arising from the last fifty or so years of globalization are a major factor explaining contemporary politics, economic grievances become much more acute when they are attached to feelings of indignity and disrespect. Indeed, much of what we understand to be economic motivation actually reflects not a straightforward desire for wealth and resources, but the fact that money is perceived to be a marker of status..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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dc8e31c
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The connection between economic interest and recognition was well understood by the founder of modern political economy, Adam Smith, in his book The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Even in late-eighteenth-century Britain, he observed that the poor had basic necessities and did not suffer from gross material deprivation. They sought wealth for a different reason: To be observed, to be attended to, to be taken notice of with sympathy, complacency..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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bec19eb
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Trump represented a broader trend in international politics, toward what has been labeled populist nationalism.1 Populist leaders seek to use the legitimacy conferred by democratic elections to consolidate power. They claim direct charismatic connection to "the people," who are often defined in narrow ethnic terms that exclude big parts of the population. They don't like institutions and seek to undermine the checks and balances that limit ..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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7358a32
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Samuel Huntington identified the "Tudor" character of American politics.1 According to Huntington, the Englishmen who settled North America in the seventeenth century brought with them many of the political practices of Tudor, or late medieval, England. On American soil these old institutions became entrenched and were eventually written into the American Constitution, a fragment of the old society frozen in time.2 Those Tudor characteristi..
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Francis Fukuyama |
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b4f4c98
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Sorun, bilimsel arastirmalara iliskin secimleri bilimcilerin mi yoksa politikacilarin mi yapacagi degil, uremeye iliskin neyin dogru oldugu kararinin anne babalarin mi yoksa devletin mi verecegidir. James Watson bu karari erkeklerden olusan bir duzenleme gurbunun degil, annelerinbireysel oalrak vermeleri gerektigini vurgulamistir.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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b71336a
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Human beings cooperate to compete and compete to cooperate.
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Francis Fukuyama |
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a4e2d51
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The young Hegel witnessed Napoleon riding through his university town after the Battle of Jena in 1806 and saw in that act the incipient universalization of recognition in the form of the principles of the French Revolution. This is the sense in which Hegel believed that history had come to an end: it culminated in the idea of universal recognition;
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Francis Fukuyama |
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003174b
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Property came to be owned not by groups of kinfolk but by individuals, who increasingly won the right to buy and sell it at will. Their rights to that property were enforced not by kin but by courts and legal systems that had the power to settle disputes and compensate wrongs. In time, moreover, social rules were formalized as written laws rather than customs or informal traditions. These formal rules were used to organize the way that powe..
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Francis Fukuyama |